2,3). A subset of healthy, immunocompetent individuals remain TST and IGRA negative despite persistent, high levels of exposure to infection were found in blood monocytes from these individuals compared with individuals who develop a positive TST after similar mycobacterial exposure15. a cohort of Ugandan individuals who were household contacts of patients with TB. These individuals were highly exposed to but tested negative by IFN- release assay and tuberculin skin test, Difloxacin HCl resisting development of classic LTBI. We show that resisters possess IgM, class-switched IgG antibody responses and non-IFN- T cell responses to the exposure, with implications for public health CT19 and the design of clinical trials. Subject terms: Cellular immunity, Biomarkers, Tuberculosis, Antibodies New immune biomarkers of exposure to tuberculosis may require a rethink of evidence of infection and control. Main (leads to a spectrum of outcomes, including primary progressive disease and latent infection (LTBI). A diagnosis of LTBI is based on evidence of immune sensitization to antigens and the absence of clinical symptoms of tuberculosis (TB) or direct microbiologic evidence of disease2. The clinical standards that establish evidence of exposure and infection include the tuberculin skin test (TST) and interferon- (IFN-) release assay (IGRA). TST measures a delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction to Difloxacin HCl purified protein derivative (PPD) from infection via the ex vivo measurement of T cell-produced IFN- to peptides from the proteins ESAT6 and CFP10 (ref. 2,3). A subset of healthy, immunocompetent individuals remain TST and IGRA negative despite persistent, high levels of exposure to infection were found in blood monocytes from these individuals compared with individuals who develop a positive TST after similar mycobacterial exposure15. These innate signatures point to potentially unique, first-response immunity to exposure and/or infection. In the present study, we sought to explore the immunologic basis of persistent TST and IGRA negativity. We leveraged a longitudinal cohort study in Uganda11 to identify resisters, a population of household contacts who were highly exposed to yet remained persistently IGRA and TST negative over an average of 9.5?years of follow-up for each individual. Resisters did not possess a natural or generic anti-pathogen-specific antibody profile that could account for a unique ability to handle antigens, suggestive of extended exposure and T cell help. Moreover, T cell responses to antigens were detected, marked by antigen-specific upregulation of CD40L/CD154, a co-stimulatory molecule facilitating antigen-specific B cell maturation. exposure not captured within the current clinical spectrum of disease and expand the range of TB responses, informing future immune correlate-guided interventions. Results A subset of highly infection is acquired primarily via aerosol transmission through close contact with an individual with pulmonary TB. Nevertheless, in household contact studies not all individuals with high levels of exposure become infected, as measured by TST and IGRA9. In the present study we aimed to more fully characterize the immune responses in these individuals to determine whether they are truly non-reactive to or, alternatively, have non-canonical responses after exposure. A longitudinal cohort in Uganda was established to identify and follow individuals prospectively between 2002 and 2012 who remained persistently TST negative (PTSTC) and IGRA negative despite Difloxacin HCl high exposure to in household contacts of pulmonary TB9. High exposure in this area1 and within the households was determined using an epidemiologic risk score16 built on proximity and clinical characteristics of the index case. This score was used to ensure all subjects were highly and equally exposed across subject groups. Among 2,585 household contacts of 872 individuals with pulmonary TB, 173 (7.3%) were diagnosed with active TB and 1,954 (82.1%) with LTBI by TST on initial enrollment. Of these household contacts, 198 (8.3%) were PTSTC upon repeated testing over 2?years of follow-up despite equivalent epidemiologic risk profiles to contacts diagnosed with LTBI. Although most conversions in the cohort occurred rapidly, we aimed to determine the durability, stability and long-term outcomes across the 144 Difloxacin HCl contacts who remained PTSTC and 303 contacts with traditional LTBI who had equivalent baseline clinical and epidemiologic risk scores. Specifically, a re-tracing study was performed in 2014C2017 at an average of 9.5 years after initial exposure9,16. Three sequential IGRAs, measured by QuantiFERON-TB Gold, were performed on blood samples and one additional TST was performed at the end of the re-tracing study. Of the original TST population, 82.7% remained PTSTC and IGRA negative. Although there were small groups of individuals with conversions and reversions of TST and IGRAs,.
